A. Introduction
We often hear the world “scientific paper” and we also often look “scientific paper” in the internet, library, and so on. Scientific paper is very familiar in education world. Now, every teacher must able to make scientific paper. So as a novice teacher, we also learn how to make research, especially class room action research then make scientific paper. We can make scientific paper if there is a problem. The problem here means the difference between theories and the fact/reality. If there is a problem, then we make research. After we make research, we have to make report. Report of the research can assumed as scientific paper. The benefit of make scientific paper: it can improve teacher’s professional competence.
B. Content
1. What is scientific paper?
Scientific paper is a report from a research that we do. In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Most academic work is published in journal article, book or thesis form. Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication. The scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. The scientific paper, even though meeting all the tests of good writing, is not validly published if it is published in the wrong place. Scientific papers should be reviewed by scientific peers and published in a primary journal. Most governmental reports and conference literature do not qualify as primary literature.
2. How to write scientific paper?
Writing scientific paper is not easy. There are some steps to write scientific paper. First of all, before we make scientific paper, we must do a research. Research can be done if there is a problem. We may find a problem if there are two pole such theories/references and the fact/data. If there are difference between theories/references and the fact/data, so it can be a problem. We can find the fact/data from observation/collection such meaning, activity, procedures, contexts, relationships, pattern, tendencies, and so on. We can do observation by school observation such case study, classroom action research, lesson study, R and D (Research and Development). Beside of that, we can find the theories/references about ideology, philosophy, paradigm, theories, notions, and rule from the books, journals, and other scientific papers.
From the theories, there are knowledges. Then knowledge will make a category. From the category, we can develop instrument, it means from references we can make map of concept, then we make criteria, so we can create instruments. We use the instrument to develop our teaching learning process. Teacher is able to make classroom action research. We get data based on the classroom action research. After we get data, we must make data analyze. Based on data analyze, we make a report. We can publish the report as a scientific paper.
Most scientific papers is subdivided into the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, acknowledgments, and literature cited, which parallel the experimental process.
Experimental process Section of Paper
What did I do in a nutshell? Abstract
What is the problem? Introduction
How did I solve the problem? Materials and Methods
What did I find out? Results
What does it mean? Discussion
Who helped me out? Acknowledgments (optional)
Whose work did I refer to? Literature Cited
Extra Information Appendices (optional)
Although scientific journals differ somewhat in their specific requirements, a general format that would be acceptable for most journals is:
1. Title
Every scientific paper must have a self explanatory title. By reading the title, the work being reported should be clear to the reader without having to read the paper itself. The title should contain three elements: the name of the organism studied, the particular aspect or system studied, the variables manipulated. The title of the paper is the most often encountered part of any paper and therefore has great importance in the success of the paper.
2. Abstract
The abstract should briefly describe the question posed in the paper, the methods used to answer this question the results obtained, and the conclusions. It should be possible to determine the major points of a paper by reading the abstract. Although it is located at the beginning of the paper, it is easiest to write the abstract after the paper is completed. An abstract is intended to be self explanatory without reference to the paper, but is not a substitute for the paper. The abstract should present, in about 250 words, the purpose of the paper, general materials and methods, summarized results, and the major conclusions.
3. Introduction
The Introduction should: a) describe the question tested by the experiments described in the paper, b) explain why this is an interesting or important question, c) describe the approach used in sufficient detail that a reader who is not familiar with the technique will understand what was done and why, and d) very briefly mention the conclusion of the paper. The introduction is the statement of the problem that you investigated. It should give readers enough information to appreciate your specific objectives within a larger theoretical framework. This section may also include background information about the problem such as a summary of any research that has been done on the problem in the past and how the present experiment will help to clarify or expand the knowledge in this general area.
4. Materials and Methods
The materials and methods section should describe what was actually done. It should include description of the techniques used so someone could figure out what experiments were actually done. The general statement having been made in the introduction, this section requires the full details of methodology be given. This section explains how and, where relevant, when the experiment was done. The researcher describes the experimental design, the apparatus, methods of gathering data and type of control.
5. Results
Here the researcher presents summarized data for inspection using narrative text and, where appropriate, tables and figures to display summarized data. Only the results are presented. There is no interpretation of data or conclusions about what the data might mean are given in this section. The purpose of the result section is to provide the data resulting from application of the methods described earlier. The greatest problem in putting information into the result section for publication is the decision as to which data are representative and should be included and which data are repetitive and have no value. Statistics used to analyze and treat data should be meaningful and presented responsibly. Results should be short and sweet. Results of original studies represent new knowledge. The entire success of the paper is dependent upon the result, consequently they must be presented with crystal clarity. When graphic techniques may be used with great advantage to illustrate trends and data relationships, then tables and figures should be utilized.
6. Discussion
Here, the researcher interprets the data in terms of any patterns that were observed, any relationships among experimental variables that are important and any correlations between variables that are discernible. The author should include any explanations of how the results differed from those hypothesized, or how the results were either different from or similar to those of any related experiments performed by other researchers. The purpose of the discussion is more difficult to define than the other sections. It is usually the hardest section to write. Likewise, many papers are not accepted for publication because of inadequate discussion preparation. Most discussions tend to be too long for their intended purpose or for the available results.
The discussion should attempt to: present the principles, relationships and generalizations shown by the results; point out any exceptions or lack of correlation and define any unsettled points; show how your results and interpretations agree or disagree with previously published works; discuss any theoretical implications or practical applications of the results; summarize the evidence of the study for each conclusion. To summarize, the discussion should show the relationship among observed facts.
7. Conclusions
This section simply states what the researcher thinks the data mean, and, as such, should relate directly back to the problem/question stated in the introduction. This section should not offer any reasons for those particular conclusion, these should have been presented in the discussion section. This is where you wrap-up your article by either summarizing the main points (summary) or by interpreting the significance of your article (conclusion). If either of these is short (one or two sentences), then you can just add it to the end of the main body rather than make it a distinct section. The conclusion is a good place to set your results in a bigger picture, which might help the reader understand the significance of your article. The conclusion is also a good place to recommend future research, perhaps in the form of a hypothesis. By looking at only the introduction and conclusions sections, a reader should have a good idea of what the researcher has investigated and discovered even though the specific details of how the work was done would not be known.
8. Literature Cited
This section lists, in alphabetical order by author, all published information that was referred to anywhere in the text of the paper. It provides the readers with the information needed should they want to refer to the original literature on the general problem. Note that the literature cited section includes only those references that were actually mentioned (cited) in the paper. Any other information that the researcher may have read about the problem but did not mention in the paper is not included in this section. There are a variety of ways of citing references in the text, the style used depends upon the policy of the journal.
C. Conclusion
Scientific paper is a report from a research that we do. The scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. There are some steps to write scientific paper. First of all, before we make scientific paper, we must do a research. We can publish the report of our research as a scientific paper. Scientific papers is subdivided into the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, acknowledgments, and literature cited.
References:
Gary Dillard. The Scientific Paper.
http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/biol398/paper/papertext.html.
NN. A Guide To Writing Scientific Papers.
http://www.colby.edu/biology/BI17x/writing_papers.html
NN. Guidelines For Writing A Scientific Paper.
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/~smaloy/MicrobialGenetics/topics/scientific-writing.pdf
Kenneth Carpenter. How to Write a Scientific Article. http://www.aaps
journal.org/submission%20pdf/How%20to%20Write%20a%20Scientific%20Paper.pdf
Selasa, 17 April 2012
Selasa, 03 April 2012
LESSON PLAN
School : Junior High School 1
Wates
Subject : Mathematic
Class/Semester : VII/2
Standard Competence : 4. Using
concepts of set and Venn Diagram in problem solving.
Basic Competence : 4.1. Understanding the definition and the
notation of set and how to state a sets.
Indicators : 4.1.1. To state
daily problems in a set.
4.1.2. To mention the element
of a set.
4.1.3. To
mention non element of a set.
4.1.4. To represent a set by
description.
4.1.5. To represent a set using
tabular form.
4.1.6. To
represent a set using set-builder form.
Time Allocation : 1 x 20 minutes
I.
Learning
Objectives:
1. Students are able to state daily problems in a set.
2. Students are able to mention
the element of a set.
3. Students are able to
mention non element of a set.
4. Students are able to represent
a set by description.
5. Students are able to represent
a set using tabular form.
6. Students are able to
represent a set using set-builder form.
II.
Materials:
SET
A is collection
of animals that have 4 legs.
A is set of animals that
have 4 legs.a.jpg)
B is set of fruits.
A. Meaning of Set:
A set is a collection of well defined and
distinct objects.
Capital letters
are used to indicate the set’s name. The symbol of a set is {}.
Example:
1. Collection
of handsome boys. (Not a set because the objects are not well defined)
2. Collection of big houses. (Not a set because the objects are not well defined)
A. Elements of a Set:
Objects in a set
are called elements of a set.
Notation of the element
is Î.
Notation of non element
is Ï.
Example:
1. Buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, cow are
elements of set A. Duck is not element of A.
Buffalo, sheep,
bison, rhinoceros, cow Î A. Duck Ï A.
2. Watermelon, lemon, strawberry, avocado, banana,
apple, pineapple are elements of set B. Grape is not element of B.
Watermelon, lemon,
strawberry, avocado, banana, apple, pineapple Î B. Grape Ï B.
B. There are three ways to represent a set, such:
1. By description
Example:
a. C is set of prime numbers less than 15.
b. D is set of natural numbers between 2 and 13.
2. Using tabular form: listing each member of the set.
Example:
a. A = {buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, cow}
b. B = {watermelon, lemon, strawberry, avocado, banana,
apple, pineapple}
c. C = {……………………………….}
d. D = {……………………………….}
3. Using the set-builder form
Example:
a. C = {x
| x < 15, x is prime numbers}
Read as: C is the
set of all x, such that x is less than 15 and x is prime numbers.
b. D = {………………………………}
III.
Learning
method:
Methods: expository, asking and answer,
discussion.
IV.
Learning scenario:
|
Teacher activities
|
Students activities
|
Duration
|
|
A. Introduction
|
||
|
1. Teacher greets students,
“Good afternoon my students!”
Teacher asks
students’ condition, “How are you?”
“Who is absent
today?”
|
1. Students also greet teacher, “Good afternoon
Mom!”
Students answer,
“Very well, thank you.”
“None Mom.”
|
1 minute
|
|
2. Teacher tells students that in this meeting
they will learn about set, “Let’s begin our class now. Today we will talk about set. In the end
of the lesson, you will be able to state daily problems
in a set, mention the element
and non element of a set, represent a set by definition, using tabular form,
and using the set-builder form”
|
2. Students listen carefully what teacher said.
|
1 minute
|
|
B. Main Activities
|
||
|
1. Teacher write the title “SET” in the white
board. Then, teacher show picture A and B.
Teacher tells a
story about picture A, “Last holyday, Absari tells me that she went to Gembira
Loka Zoo. In the zoo, Absari looks buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, and
cow.”
|
1. Students also write the title “SET” in
her/his book.
Students look at
the picture. Students pay attention to teacher’s story.
|
1 minute
|
|
2. Teacher explains, “We also can say that
picture A is collection of animals that have four legs. In the other word, A
is set of animals that have four legs.”
Then teacher
write on the board: A is collection
of animals that have 4 legs. A is set of animals that have four legs.
|
2. Students listen carefully and also write in
his/her book.
|
1 minute
|
|
3. Then teacher tells story about picture B, “Yuliana
likes fruits very much. She likes watermelon, lemon, strawberry, avocado,
banana, apple, pineapple. So, what is the name of the set consist of
watermelon, lemon, strawberry, avocado, banana, apple, pineapple?”
Teacher asks students
whose answer the question, “Can you
write your answer?”
|
3. Students listen to teacher story and answer,
“Set of fruits.”
Then, student
writes the answer on the board.
|
1 minute
|
|
4. Teacher asks students, “So, what is the
meaning of set?”
Teacher explains
and writes on the board: “A set is a collection of well defined and distinct objects. Capital letters are used to indicate the
set’s name. The symbol of a set is {}.”
|
4. Students answer: “Set is collection of
objects.”
Students listen
to teacher explanation and also write in his/her book.
|
1 minute
|
|
5. Teacher asks students, “Can you give example of
not well defined objects?”
Teacher says,
“Collection of handsome boys are not well defined objects. Then, the other
example is collection of big houses. They are not a set.”
|
5. Students answer: collection of handsome boy.
Students pay
attention to teacher’s statement.
|
1 minute
|
|
6. Teacher explains and writes on the white
board, “Objects in a set are called elements of a set. Notation of the
element is Î. Notation of non element is Ï.”
Teacher asks
students, “What are the elements of set A? Is duck element of set A?”
Then, teacher
write on the board: Buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, cow are elements of A.
Duck is not element of A. Buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, cow Î A. Duck ÏA.
|
7. Students listen and also write in his/her
book.
Students answer,
“Buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros, cow Î A. Duck ÏA”
|
1 minute
|
|
7. Teacher asks students, “What are the elements
of set B? Is grape element of set B?”
Then teacher
asks one students to write the answer on the board, “Can you come to write
the answer?”
|
8. Students answer: watermelon, lemon,
strawberry, avocado, apple, pineapple, banana ÎB. GrapeÏ B.
|
1 minute
|
|
8. Teacher explains and write on the board, “There
are three ways to represent a set: by description, using tabular form, and
using set-builder form.” Then teacher give example how to represent a set by
description: C is set of prime numbers less than 15. D is set of natural
numbers between 2 and 13.
|
9. Students pay attention to teacher’s
explanation.
|
1 minute
|
|
9. Teacher gives example how to represent a set
using tabular form/
listing each member of the set and write on the board: A = {buffalo, sheep, bison, rhinoceros,
cow}. Then teacher asks student to represent set B, C, and D, “Can you
represent set B, C, and D by using tabular form?”
Teacher asks
student to write the answer on the board.
|
10. Students pay attention to teacher’s
explanation.
Student answer:
B = {watermelon, lemon, strawberry, avocado, banana, apple, pineapple}, C=
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}, D = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
|
2 minutes
|
|
10. Teacher gives example how to represent a set
using set-builder form and write on the board: C = {x | x < 15, x Î prime numbers}. We can read as: C is the set
of all x, such that x is less than 15 and x is prime numbers. Then teacher
asks student to represent set D, “Can you represent set D using set-builder
form?”
Teacher asks
student to write the answer on the board.
|
11. Students pay attention to teacher’s
explanation.
Student answer:
D = {x | 2 < x < 13, x Î natural numbers}
|
2 minutes
|
|
11. Teacher says, “Now, I have exercise for you.
Please make grubs contain 2 people and discuss about the exercise, after you
finish, then present your answer in front of class.”
|
12. Students make grubs contain 2 people, then
discuss about the exercise.
|
2 minutes
|
|
12. Teacher walks around the class and look
students’ answer. Teacher asks students to present their answer, “Who is
finish? Please come to write your answer.”
|
13. Students from grubs 1,2,3,4 come in front of
class and write the answer.
|
3 minutes
|
|
C. Closing
|
||
|
1. Teacher says, “Okay, the conclusion of this
meeting: A set is a collection of well defined and distinct objects. Objects in a set are called elements of a
set. Three ways to represent a set: by description, using tabular form, and
using set-builder form.”
|
1. Students pay attention to teacher’s say.
|
1 minute
|
|
2. Teacher asks students, “Don’t forget to do
your homework. Because time is up, so we will continue our lesson next week.
Good afternoon, have a nice weekend, bye bye, and see you.”
|
2. Students answer, “Good afternoon Mom. Bye bye
and see you Mom.”
|
|
I. Learning
source and media:
Learning
source:
Dr.
Marsigit, MA. 2009. Mathematics for Junior High School Year VII. Jakarta: Penerbit
Yudhistira.
Media: Picture of animals and
fruits.
II. Assessment:
A. Technique :
written test.
B. Question :
Exercise
1. What is the set that can be formed by 0, 1, 4,
9, 16, and 25?
2. Write set H = {h | 2h – 5 < 7, h Î whole numbers} using tabular form.
3. Write set J = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
using set-builder form.
4. Write set K = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15}
using set-builder form.
Homework:
1. Write L = {0, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32} using
set-builder form.
2. Write M = {m | -17 < 2m ≤ -1, m Î whole numbers} using tabular form.
C. Answer:
Exercise:
1. G = {quadratic numbers less than 26} or
G = {g | g2 <
26, g is whole numbers}
2. H = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
3. J = {j | 1 < 2j < 15, j is natural
numbers}
4. K = {k | k < 16, k is composite numbers}
Homework:
1. L = {x | (1/2)x ≤ 1/16, x Î even numbers}
2. M = {}
Yogyakarta, 4th April 2012
Microteaching teacher,
Margaretha Madha Melissa
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)